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C encompasses static typing, strong typing , lexically scoped , imperative , declarative , functional , generic , object-oriented class -based , and component-oriented programming disciplines.
Microsoft introduced C along with. At the time, Microsoft had no open-source products. Four years later, in , a free and open-source project called Mono began, providing a cross-platform compiler and runtime environment for the C programming language. A decade later, Microsoft released Visual Studio Code code editor , Roslyn compiler , and the unified. NET platform software framework , all of which support C and are free, open-source, and cross-platform.
Mono also joined Microsoft but was not merged into. As of July , [update] the most recent stable version of the language is C NET 6. The Ecma standard lists these design goals for C : [16]. During the development of the. By the time the. NET runtime had been ported to C. In interviews and technical papers he has stated that flaws [23] in most major programming languages e. James Gosling , who created the Java programming language in , and Bill Joy , a co-founder of Sun Microsystems , the originator of Java, called C an "imitation" of Java; Gosling further said that "[C is] sort of Java with reliability, productivity and security deleted.
Boring repetition that lacks innovation," [26] "Hardly anybody will claim that Java or C are revolutionary programming languages that changed the way we write programs," and "C borrowed a lot from Java - and vice versa. Now that C supports boxing and unboxing, we'll have a very similar feature in Java. Since the release of C 2. One of the first major departures came with the addition of generics to both languages, with vastly different implementations.
C makes use of reification to provide "first-class" generic objects that can be used like any other class, with code generation performed at class-load time. The LINQ extensions and the functional imports help developers reduce the amount of boilerplate code that is included in common tasks like querying a database, parsing an xml file, or searching through a data structure, shifting the emphasis onto the actual program logic to help improve readability and maintainability.
C used to have a mascot called Andy named after Anders Hejlsberg. It was retired on January 29, Microsoft first used the name C in for a variant of the C language designed for incremental compilation. The name "C sharp" was inspired by the musical notation whereby a sharp symbol indicates that the written note should be made a semitone higher in pitch. Due to technical limitations of display standard fonts, browsers, etc.
The "sharp" suffix has been used by a number of other. NET languages that are variants of existing languages, including J a. NET language also designed by Microsoft that is derived from Java 1.
NET was called Eiffel , [42] a name retired since the full Eiffel language is now supported. The suffix has also been used for libraries , such as Gtk a. However, the language specification does not state the code generation requirements of the compiler: that is, it does not state that a C compiler must target a Common Language Runtime, or generate Common Intermediate Language CIL , or generate any other specific format. C supports strongly, implicitly typed variable declarations with the keyword var , and implicitly typed arrays with the keyword new[] followed by a collection initializer.
C supports a strict Boolean data type , bool. Statements that take conditions, such as while and if , require an expression of a type that implements the true operator, such as the Boolean type.
The only implicit conversions by default are those that are considered safe, such as widening of integers. This is enforced at compile-time, during JIT , and, in some cases, at runtime. No implicit conversions occur between Booleans and integers, nor between enumeration members and integers except for literal 0, which can be implicitly converted to any enumerated type.
Enumeration members are placed in their own scope. The C language does not allow for global variables or functions. All methods and members must be declared within classes. Static members of public classes can substitute for global variables and functions. Metaprogramming can be achieved in several ways:. A method in C is a member of a class that can be invoked as a function a sequence of instructions , rather than the mere value-holding capability of a class property.
Certain specific kinds of methods, such as those that simply get or set a class property by return value or assignment, do not require a full signature, but in the general case, the definition of a class includes the full signature declaration of its methods. Extension methods in C allow programmers to use static methods as if they were methods from a class's method table, allowing programmers to add methods to an object that they feel should exist on that object and its derivatives.
The type dynamic allows for run-time method binding, allowing for JavaScript-like method calls and run-time object composition.
C has support for strongly-typed function pointers via the keyword delegate. Synchronized ] , and has support for mutually-exclusive locks via the keyword lock. C supports classes with properties. The properties can be simple accessor functions with a backing field, or implement getter and setter functions. Since C 3.
Namespaces can be imported with the "using" syntax. In C , memory address pointers can only be used within blocks specifically marked as unsafe , [69] and programs with unsafe code need appropriate permissions to run. Most object access is done through safe object references, which always either point to a "live" object or have the well-defined null value; it is impossible to obtain a reference to a "dead" object one that has been garbage collected , or to a random block of memory.
An unsafe pointer can point to an instance of an 'unmanaged' value type that does not contain any references to garbage-collected objects, array, string, or a block of stack-allocated memory. Code that is not marked as unsafe can still store and manipulate pointers through the System.
IntPtr type, but it cannot dereference them. Managed memory cannot be explicitly freed; instead, it is automatically garbage collected. Garbage collection addresses the problem of memory leaks by freeing the programmer of responsibility for releasing memory that is no longer needed in most cases. Code that retains references to objects longer than is required can still experience higher memory usage than necessary, however once the final reference to an object is released the memory is available for garbage collection.
A range of standard exceptions are available to programmers. Methods in standard libraries regularly throw system exceptions in some circumstances and the range of exceptions thrown is normally documented. Custom exception classes can be defined for classes allowing specific handling to be put in place for particular circumstances as needed.
Checked exceptions are not present in C in contrast to Java. This has been a conscious decision based on the issues of scalability and versionability. This was a design decision by the language's lead architect to avoid complications and to simplify architectural requirements throughout CLI. When implementing multiple interfaces that contain a method with the same name and taking parameters of the same type in the same order i. However, unlike Java, C supports operator overloading.
C has the ability to utilize LINQ through the. NET Framework. Using LINQ in C brings advantages like Intellisense support, strong filtering capabilities, type safety with compile error checking ability, and consistency for querying data over a variety of sources.
Though primarily an imperative language, C 2. C has a unified type system. A unified type system implies that all types, including primitives such as integers, are subclasses of the System. Object class. For example, every type inherits a ToString method. CTS separates data types into two categories: [79].
Instances of value types neither have referential identity nor referential comparison semantics. Equality and inequality comparisons for value types compare the actual data values within the instances, unless the corresponding operators are overloaded.
Value types are derived from System. ValueType , always have a default value, and can always be created and copied. Some other limitations on value types are that they cannot derive from each other but can implement interfaces and cannot have an explicit default parameterless constructor. Examples of value types are all primitive types, such as int a signed bit integer , float a bit IEEE floating-point number , char a bit Unicode code unit , and System.
DateTime identifies a specific point in time with nanosecond precision. Other examples are enum enumerations and struct user defined structures. In contrast, reference types have the notion of referential identity, meaning that each instance of a reference type is inherently distinct from every other instance, even if the data within both instances is the same. This is reflected in default equality and inequality comparisons for reference types, which test for referential rather than structural equality, unless the corresponding operators are overloaded such as the case for System.
Some operations are not always possible, such as creating an instance of a reference type, copying an existing instance, or performing a value comparison on two existing instances. Though specific reference types can provide such services by exposing a public constructor or implementing a corresponding interface such as ICloneable or IComparable.
Examples of reference types are object the ultimate base class for all other C classes , System. String a string of Unicode characters , and System.
Array a base class for all C arrays. Boxing is the operation of converting a value-type object into a value of a corresponding reference type.
Unboxing is the operation of converting a value of a reference type previously boxed into a value of a value type. A boxed object of type T can only be unboxed to a T or a nullable T.
The C specification details a minimum set of types and class libraries that the compiler expects to have available. In addition to the standard CLI specifications, there are many commercial and community class libraries that build on top of the. NET framework libraries to provide additional functionality.
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You can purchase prepaid subscriptions from a retailer or reseller, or a Microsoft support agent. If you have an active Microsoft Family subscription, you can share it with up to five members of your household six total. When you use cloud-based services, your IT infrastructure resides off your property off-premisesand нажмите чтобы узнать больше maintained by a third party hostedinstead of residing on a server at your home or business on-premises that you maintain.
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